Jorge Carvajal

Westinghouse is developing an In-Rod Sensor System (IRSS) [1, 2] capable of measuring key fuel rod operational parameters such as center-line fuel temperature, rod internal pressure, and axial fuel pellet stack elongation, all without the need of a penetration to the sealed fuel rod boundary. The sensor operates by utilizing a low frequency magnetic field to transmit data through numerous layers of metal barriers. When parameters are measured in real-time and combined with fuel performance model and atomistic modelling results, the time required to qualify new fuel technologies is greatly reduced, supporting Accelerated Fuel Qualification (AFQ) efforts. Furthermore, when applied to a commercial power reactor, operators may use the information gathered by the sensor to reduce safety margin uncertainty and operate closer to plant technical specification limits – thereby increasing economic benefits. The sensor system is under active development for Light Water Reactor (LWR) based fuel assemblies but can also be applied to Gen IV reactor fuel designs with minimal modifications. This paper will focus on recent test results from the Penn State Breazeale Reactor (PSBR). The test campaign demonstrates full system performance in a mock-up fuel rod bundle assembly adjacent to the PSBR core. The testing at PSBR is the latest in a campaign of prototype tests, including those conducted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Reactor (MITR) and Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s High Flux Isotope Reactor (ORNL HFIR). The results from those tests were covered in the previous NPIC-HMIT conference [3].

Westinghouse is developing an In-Rod Sensor (IRS) System [1, 2] capable of measuring critical fuel rod parameters such as center-line fuel temperature, rod internal pressure and axial fuel pellet stack elongation without having penetrations to the fuel rod. The technology is similar to the Halden Reactor instrumentation [3], but the IRS system focuses on commercial fuel rod instrumentation. Both systems circumvent fuel rod penetrations, however the IRS system overcomes unique geometric challenges found in commercial fuel rod assemblies. The IRS could also play a key role in accelerated fuel qualification by allowing real-time measurements during separate effects tests, integral fuel testing or during irradiation of lead test rods or lead test assemblies. Combining these measurements with data acquired from targeted separate effects testing and multi-scale modelling could significantly reduce the time required to qualify new fuel and reduce the safety margin uncertainty of operating plants. The IRS is actively in development for Light Water Reactors (LWR) based fuel assemblies but can also be applied to Gen IV reactor designs with minimal modifications.

Westinghouse Electric Company is developing wireless sensors to monitor the centerline temperature and internal pressure of commercial light-water reactor fuel rods during irradiation. Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Westinghouse Electric Company developed the Wireless Instrumented RB Experiment 2021 (WIRE-21) to test wireless temperature and pressure sensor technologies in a removable beryllium position in the High Flux Isotope Reactor. The experiment was irradiated for a total of 75 days, at temperatures ranging from approximately 150°C to 400°C, resulting in a peak fast (energy > 0.1 MeV) neutron fluence of about 3 × 1021 n/cm2. The temperature was intentionally cycled multiple times to compare the response of the wireless temperature sensor to collocated thermocouples. Similarly, the pressure sensor was actuated in multiple steps to compare the response of the wireless measurement to excore pressure transducers (Petrie et al., 2023). After irradiation, the experiment was disassembled in the Irradiated Fuels Examination Laboratory (IFEL) hot cell at Oak Ridge National Laboratory with the intent to recover sensor and dosimetry components, document the as-irradiated condition of the hardware, and investigate possible causes of the sensor behavior observed during irradiation. The postirradiation examination successfully recovered and preserved key WIRE-21 components. After the housing was removed using a milling machine, the internal experiment sections were examined. All eight fiber-optic sensors were recovered, cut, and stored. The silicon carbide thermometry, temperature sensor, pressure sensor, lower spacer, and selected pressure and temperature cable sections were also removed and stored. The metal bellows of the pressure sensor was found to be plastically deformed, indicating that it had been properly pressurized during irradiation and generally behaved as expected. X-ray diffraction analysis of a section of one of the irradiated inductor cores within the pressure sensor was performed and confirmed the presence of phase-pure alpha ferrite (i.e., no unexpected phase transformations). Inductance testing was performed on the irradiated pressure sensor cores using an unirradiated test coil, and DC resistance measurements of the transceiver coils were also performed. The measurements with irradiated inductor cores assembled inside unirradiated coils showed slightly reduced inductance compared to measurements made with unirradiated cores, but the difference was not sufficient to explain the more significant reductions in inductance that were observed in-pile. Therefore, it is suspected that degradation of the inductor coils (specifically the wire wrapping) is responsible for the reduced inductance observed in-pile.

This report summarizes the in situ data collected during three cycles of irradiation (~75 days) of the Wireless Instrumented Removable Beryllium Experiment 2021 (WIRE-21) in the removable beryllium (RB) positions of the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR). The experiment was designed primarily to evaluate the effects of high neutron flux and fluence on the performance of wireless temperature and pressure sensors being developed by Westinghouse Electric Company (WEC). WEC’s sensors could provide critical data regarding the evolution of centerline temperatures and pressurization due to fission gas release during fuel operation in light-water reactors (LWRs) or various advanced reactor applications. In addition to WEC’s wireless sensors, many other sensors were interrogated, including thermocouples, self-powered neutron detectors (SPNDs), distributed fiber optic temperature sensors, and passive neutron flux wires and silicon carbide thermometry. WIRE-21 was irradiated for a total of 75 effective full-power days over five full or partial HFIR cycles, resulting in maximum thermal and fast neutron fluences of 5.8 × 1021 and 3.4 × 1021 n/cm2, respectively. Although two exposed thermocouples located inside WEC’s sensors failed during the first irradiation cycle, the remaining 10 thermocouples that were functional at the start of the irradiation survived for the entire duration of the experiment. Measured temperatures were within the range of typical LWR operating conditions: most thermocouples reading in the ~300–400°C range. The four SPNDs all showed a measurable response to changes in reactor power, but each SPND responded differently. The fiber optic sensors show interesting evolutions in reflected signal intensities that depend significantly on the fiber dopants, type of fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), and the light guiding mechanism (total internal reflection vs. photonic band gap). The discrepancies in the SPND data and the detailed evolution of the fiber optic sensors are being investigated by the Advanced Sensors and Instrumentation program of the US Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy. Multiple temperature and pressure transients were actuated to compare the response of WEC’s sensors with reference thermocouples or ex-core pressure transducers, respectively. WEC’s sensors successfully captured all actuated temperature transients, even after accumulating fast neutron fluence on the order of 2 × 1021 n/cm2. Significant reductions in the inductance in WEC’s six inductors caused some drift in the wireless sensors. These effects appear to be related to rate effects (i.e., higher neutron flux), as they were not observed during previous testing at lower neutron flux. However, WEC’s temperature sensor remained functional even after the inductances decreased. Unfortunately, WEC’s pressure sensor showed no response during pressurization of the metal bellows. Post-irradiation examination will help inform why the sensor did not respond to changes in applied pressure and determine the mechanism for the decrease in inductances.

The ability to deploy new nuclear fuels for current or future reactor concepts requires a wealth of data regarding fuel performance during normal operation, anticipated operational occurrences, and design-basis accidents. Most of these data have historically been collected during experiments in materials test reactors, ideally with online instrumentation to collect as much data as possible. However, advanced instrumentation could also allow for in situ monitoring of fuel operating conditions during commercial reactor operation to maximize fuel utilization, reduce unnecessary conservativism in design margins, and improve operator understanding of limiting peaking factors. The latter approach would complicate fuel handling, particularly during refueling, unless the instrumentation could be placed inside the fuel rods and transmitted wirelessly to a receiver located outside the fuel’s primary pressure boundary. To this end, Westinghouse Electric Company (WEC) developed wireless sensors based on inductive coupling that can transmit information regarding fuel centerline temperatures and rod internal pressures wirelessly from within a fuel rod to a nearby instrument thimble. After testing these sensors in lower-power university research reactors, the next step is to perform high neutron fluence testing to characterize the performance of these wireless sensors under conditions that are more representative of the intended application—in this case, light-water reactors (LWRs). The removable Be (RB) positions of the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) provide the neutron flux, experiment volume, and access to instrument leads required to achieve these sensor testing goals. This report summarizes the design, analysis, and assembly of the Wireless Instrumented RB Experiment 2021 (WIRE-21). This is the most highly instrumented irradiation experiment ever performed in HFIR. The experiment will use seven different sensing techniques to measure temperature, pressure, neutron flux, and neutron fluence during reactor operation. In addition to WEC’s wireless temperature and pressure sensors, WIRE-21 includes an array of thermocouples, self-powered neutron detectors, spatially distributed fiber optic temperature sensors, passive SiC temperature monitors, and flux wires. The design of WIRE-21 and the cabling that was installed in HFIR also provide the infrastructure to enable accelerated, economical testing of advanced sensor technologies while leveraging the extremely high neutron flux that is available in HFIR. The containment for WIRE-21 is similar to previous RB irradiation vehicles but includes a few modifications, most notably the use of integrated compression seals to pass a larger number of sensor leads through the experiment’s pressure boundary. In addition to the sensor leads, inert gas lines are passed into the experiment to enable active temperature control and the ability to pneumatically actuate a bellows-driven pressure sensor. WIRE-21 is targeting component temperatures (300–350°C) and neutron fluence levels (~1022 n/cm2) that would be expected in the plenum region of LWR fuels, except for the active sensing region of the wireless temperature sensor, which is targeting LWR fuel centerline temperatures (~800–1,100°C). WIRE-21 was successfully assembled, passed all nondestructive examination, and was delivered to HFIR for insertion during upcoming cycle 498 (April 2022).